Introduction

Particles can be loosely defined a words without a specific meaning but with a definite function in conversation. They are difficult to translate directly as they do not have direct equivalents in English. Particles are used particularly frequently in the spoken language.

There are three types of particles:

• modal particles
• discourse particles
• focus particles

Modal particles

Modal particles can be used in imperatives or interrogatives to modulate (change) the impact of the command or request.

In combination with imperatives, certain particles (toch, maar, eens, even and nou) modulate the impact of the command expressed by the imperative.

Maar, eens and even weaken the impact of the imperative. Maar turns an imperative into a polite request:

Note than depending on the tone used when uttering these sentences, their meaning can be different. The last example could sound more urgent with a falling intonation. In English, please could occur at the start, turning the friendly request into a rather irritated command.

However, the modal particles toch and nou strengthen the tone of an imperative. They give the command a sense of urgency.

The modal particles that can occur with imperatives, can be combined into a cluster of two or more. The order is fixed: nou, toch, maar, eens, even. The effect varies, as illustrated in the examples below.

In combination with interrogatives, certain particles (e.g. even, eens, and nou) modulate the impact of the demand expressed by the question, by making it more polite or more urgent.

Discourse particles

Discourse particles are given that name because they play an important role in the management of a conversation.

1. Toch in the following example helps convert a declarative into an interrogative:
   

   Jij speelt toch piano?
   You play the piano, don’t you?

   The effect of toch here is to ask for confirmation: the speaker knows that something is the case but wants to have it confirmed by the listener.

2. Nou indicates that a speaker is going to answer a question or react to a comment, but needs some thinking time. It is a delaying tactic, like the English well.
   

   Karin: Ik heb geen fiets.
   I have no bicycle.

   Ze hebben hem gisteren gestolen.
   It was stolen yesterday.

   Simone: Nou, dan ga je toch met de tram?
   Well, why don’t you take the tram then?

3. Zo is an indication from a speaker that (s)he has finished saying what (s)he wanted to say and therefore often an invitation to another person to say something.
   

   Zo, we zijn er.
   Right, we have arrived.

   Zo, nu we dat gehad hebben, …
   Right, now that we have had that, …

4. Hè is used in combination with a questioning (i.e. rising) intonation to turn a declarative sentence into an interrogative, like toch. In many cases, toch is added for extra effect.
   

   Je hebt (toch) wel een brandverzekering, hè?
   You do have a fire insurance, don’t you?

5. Zeg can be used at the beginning of a sentence to draw someone’s attention or to change the topic. Alternatively, it can be used at the end to reinforce the fact that the speaker is impressed.
   

   Zeg, waar woon jij in Rotterdam?
   Hey, where do you live in Rotterdam?

   Wat een leuk idee, zeg!
   That is a really nice idea!

6. Hoor at the end of a sentence is often used to reassure.
   

   Alan: Sorry, ik ben een beetje laat.
   Sorry, I’m a little late.

   Hanna: Dat geeft niet, hoor.
   That doesn’t matter, don’t worry.

Focus particles

Alleen and maar in their use as focus particles express some kind of restriction or limitation. They can also be combined:

In the first sentence alleen is used to exclude all other siblings. Maar in the second sentence expresses the same, but could imply that this is regrettable. This third example with alleen maar also carries that meaning.

Note that before numerals (as in the second example above) only maar can be used.

Ook and zelfs express the opposite of maar and alleen:

The words al, nog and pas focus on temporal elements: